Ethnobotany, phytochemistry and pharmacology of the Mediterranean dwarf palm (Chamaerops humilis L.)

Agrarian Academic Journal

agrariacad.com

doi: 10.32406/v7n2/2024/83-105/agrariacad

 

Ethnobotany, phytochemistry and pharmacology of the Mediterranean dwarf palm (Chamaerops humilis L.). Etnobotânica, fitoquímica e farmacologia da palmeira anã do Mediterrâneo (Chamaerops humilis L.).

 

Rima Haichour¹, Fatima Senouci², Ahmed Boukeloua³, Nabila Souilah⁴, Soumicha Mahdjour⁵, Karim Baziz⁶, Petulia Blake⁷, Hamdi Bendif⁸, Mohamed Djamel Miara^9*

 

^1- Laboratory of Natural Resource Valorisation, Faculty of Life and Natural Sciences, Ferhat Abbas University Setif-1, 19000, Setif, Algeria.

^2- Laboratory of Natural Bioresources, Faculty of Nature and Life Sciences, University Hassiba Ben Bouali, Chlef, Algeria.

^3- Department of Naturition Sciences, Institute of ISTA, Ain M’lila, University of Oum-EL-Bouaghi, 04000 Oum-EL-Bouaghi, Algeria.

^4- Department of Agronomic Sciences, Faculty of Sciences, University of Skikda, 21000, Skikda, Algeria.

^5- Department of Molecular Biology, Higher School of Biological Sciences (ESSBO), 31000, Oran, Algeria.

^6- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Pharmacy, Mostefa Ben Boulaïd University, Batna 2, Algeria.

^7- Poetic Haven, Limited Liability Corporation, New Haven, Connecticut, USA.

^8- Laboratory of Ethnobotany and Natural Substances, Department of Natural Sciences, Ecole Normale Supérieure (ENS), Alger 16308, Nature and Life Sciences Department, Faculty of Sciences, University of M’sila, 28000, M’sila, Algeria.

^9*- Laboratory of Agro-Biotechnology and Nutrition Research in Semi-Arid Areas, Department and Faculty of Nature and Life Sciences, Ibn Khaldoun University of Tiaret, 14000, Algeria. Corresponding author: miara14130@yahoo.fr

 

Abstract

 

The dwarf palm (Chamaerops humilis) is an important Mediterranean species traditionally used against different diseases and further developed in some local factories. The aim of the present review is to detail the traditional uses of dwarf palm, its phytochemical composition, and pharmacological activities. Scientific research databases were used to collect all published data on the plant, namely: Google-Scholars, Medline, Science-Direct, Scopus, Sci-Finder, Web of Science. Several combinations of research terms have been used including the different aspects to be explored by this study. Botany, ecology, distribution, taxonomy, but mainly ethnobotany, phytochemistry and pharmacology of the Mediterranean dwarf palm were explored. It was found that the majority of medicinal uses of dwarf palm are mainly known and practiced in North Africa, including its use against diabetes and gastrointestinal diseases. Conversely, non-medicinal uses are mainly known in the Mediterranean part of Europe, where the plant is used mostly as ornaments, nutrition and crafts. The chemical composition of drawf palm appears to be quite rich in steroids, flavonoids, volatile oils, triterpenoids, fatty acids and vitamins. Several links between the traditional medicinal uses of the plant, its chemical composition and the pharmacological properties have been explored and discussed in this review, in particular the uses against pulmonary, urinary infections, diabetes, gastric problems, kidneys, skin and hair loss as well as its ethno-veterinary use. C. humilis is a Mediterranean plant that has long been used by the local populations of the Mediterranean basin. However, there is a paucity in the exploration of this plant, both ethnobotanically and pharmacologically. This study identified gaps in the known data on this species, and presents several findings to show its value to the fields of ethnobotany and phytochemistry. Several ethnobotanical uses need to be justified on the pharmacological level. There are still some unknown uses and proprieties of the plant that must be investigated for the purpose of fighting cancer. The conservation of this species must also be reinforced due to the reduction of its natural populations across the Mediterranean basin.

Keywords: Chamaerops humilis. Medicinal plant. Pharmacological medicine. Phytochemical profile. Traditional uses.

 

Resumo

 

A palmeira anã (Chamaerops humilis) é uma importante espécie mediterrânea tradicionalmente usada contra diferentes doenças e posteriormente desenvolvida em algumas fábricas locais. O objetivo da presente revisão é detalhar os usos tradicionais da palmeira anã, sua composição fitoquímica e atividades farmacológicas. Bancos de dados de pesquisa científica foram usados ​​para coletar todos os dados publicados sobre a planta, a saber: Google-Scholars, Medline, Science-Direct, Scopus, Sci-Finder, Web of Science. Várias combinações de termos de pesquisa foram usadas, incluindo os diferentes aspectos a serem explorados por este estudo. Botânica, ecologia, distribuição, taxonomia, mas principalmente etnobotânica, fitoquímica e farmacologia da palmeira anã mediterrânea foram exploradas. Foi descoberto que a maioria dos usos medicinais da palmeira anã são principalmente conhecidos e praticados no Norte da África, incluindo seu uso contra diabetes e doenças gastrointestinais. Por outro lado, os usos não medicinais são principalmente conhecidos na parte mediterrânea da Europa, onde a planta é usada principalmente como ornamentos, nutrição e artesanato. A composição química da palmeira-d’água parece ser bastante rica em esteroides, flavonoides, óleos voláteis, triterpenoides, ácidos graxos e vitaminas. Várias ligações entre os usos medicinais tradicionais da planta, sua composição química e as propriedades farmacológicas foram exploradas e discutidas nesta revisão, em particular os usos contra infecções pulmonares, urinárias, diabetes, problemas gástricos, rins, pele e perda de cabelo, bem como seu uso etno-veterinário. C. humilis é uma planta mediterrânea que tem sido usada há muito tempo pelas populações locais da bacia do Mediterrâneo. No entanto, há uma escassez na exploração desta planta, tanto etnobotânica quanto farmacologicamente. Este estudo identificou lacunas nos dados conhecidos sobre esta espécie e apresenta várias descobertas para mostrar seu valor para os campos da etnobotânica e fitoquímica. Vários usos etnobotânicos precisam ser justificados no nível farmacológico. Ainda existem alguns usos e propriedades desconhecidos da planta que devem ser investigados com o propósito de combater o câncer. A conservação desta espécie também deve ser reforçada devido à redução de suas populações naturais em toda a bacia do Mediterrâneo.

Palavras-chave: Chamaerops humilis. Planta medicinal. Medicina farmacológica. Perfil fitoquímico. Usos tradicionais.

 

 

1. Introduction

 

Chamaerops humilis L. (Arecaceae), known vernacularly as the dwarf palm is an important species naturally growing in the Mediterranean parts of both Europe and Africa (GUSZMAN et al., 2017). 

This plant is also distributed elsewhere and formerly known in the Mediterranean region under different names: in North Africa it is called “Doum”, in Italy “palma nana, palma di San Pietro”. The Sicilians call it “ciafagghiuni, giummarra, scuparina or scupazzu”, while the the Sardinians call it “margaglio, pramma or paimmizzu”. The Spanish know this plant under several names “palma de escobas, palma de palmitos or palmera enana”, as is the case of the Portuguese “palmeira ana or palmeira das vasouras”, while the French call it “chamaerops humble, palmier nain or palmite nain”.

According to Hasnaoui et al. (2011), dwarf palm plant has a great socioeconomic value by the use of esparto for the transport of olives, grapes and other fruits, and fish. The dwarf fan palm is used in many Mediterranean countries in traditional medicine, but also for ornamental and dietary purposes (BELLAKHDAR et al., 1991; MERLO et al., 1993; ALIOTTA and POLLIO, 1994; HALIMI, 1997; BLUMENTHAL et al., 2000; BEGHALIA et al., 2008; HASNAOUI et al., 2011; BENMEHDI et al., 2012; MEDJATI et al., 2019).

C. humilis is cultivated for ornamental purposes in several countries of this basin, while, certain parts of this palm are used for food or for traditional medication (GONÇALVES et al., 2018). In Roman times, the young shoots of C. humilis was used in North Africa and Sicily for dietary purposes. Also, the local manufacture used the leaves of this plant to make brooms, hats, baskets and fans. In southern Spain, people eat the husk (higa), in Morocco the fruits and in Italy the young suckers (MERLO et al., 1993; HAYNES and MC-LAUGHLIN, 2000). In Algeria (Tlemcen), Hasnaoui et al. (2013) report that several digestive diseases are treated by consuming the spadices and the heart of the plant. In both Morocco and Algeria, authors such as Bnouham et al. (2002) or Hasnaoui et al. (2013) report that the leaves are traditionally used against diabetes.

Several studies investigated the phytochemical properties of this plant especially its richness in tannins, flavonoids, sterols and saponins. Nehdi et al. (2014) reveal that the essential oil of the seeds of C. humilis is rich in bioactive compounds that can resist oxidation and heat. The extracts of the leaves have antioxidant activity and inhibitory enzyme action linked with neurodegenerative diseases such as tyrosinase, acetylcholinesterase and butyrylcholinesterase (BOUHAFSOUN et al., 2013; GONÇALVES et al., 2018). Unfortunately, the phytochemical traits of C. humilis are still not well known (GONÇALVES et al., 2018) perhaps due to the lack of sufficient document of the ethnobotanical (MEDJATI et al., 2019). In addition, all the phytochemical properties of dwarf palm do not always explain its pharmacological effects and traditional uses, especially in North Africa where the plant is traditionally known for its therapeutic properties. Thus, in addition to further contribute to the study of this plant, this body of work aims to analyse more deeply the relationship between its traditional applications and the pharmacological activities. According to the consulted documentation, we believe that it will be the first review on this plant and this specific issue.

Based on the available literature, we mainly collected data dealing with traditional use, phytochemistry and pharmacology of the drawf palm. But also, its distribution, ecology, botany and taxonomy. Finally, a general discussion of the obtained results will highlight some research perspectives on this interesting plant.

The objective of this work is to deliver a complete review describing the traditional uses of the dwarf palm (Chamaerops humilis), its phytochemical composition, and its pharmacological activities.Haut du formulaire

 

2. Material and methods

 

Information on C. humilis was collected from several sources such as books and journals via libraries or electronic databases. In addition to the documents found at University libraries (University of Tiaret, Msila, Oran), several specific sources of digital databases have been used such as: SciFinder, Medline, Scopus, Springer, PubMed, Science direct, Google Web, Google Scholar, Web of Science and Elsevier. Various combinations of research terms have been introduced to these search engines, including: “Chamaerops humilis“, “Chamaerops humilis ethnobotany”, “Chamaerops humilis traditional uses”, “Chamaerops humilis phytochemical constituents”, “Chamaerops humilis pharmacological activities”, “Chamaerops humilis essential oils”, “Chamaerops humilis seeds oils”, “Chamaerops humilis antibacterial activity”, “Chamaerops humilis antidiabetic activity”, “Chamaerops humilis antioxidant activity”, “Chamaerops humilis anticancer activity”, and other combinations. We also, used the reference lists of the extracted documents to identify other relevant studies.

 

3. Results and discussion

 

3.1. Distribution, ecology, botany and taxonomy

Native to the western Mediterranean region, including North Africa (Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya) and southern Europe (Portugal, Spain and Italy: west of Sicily and Sardinia), the dwarf palm C. humilis also exists along the Italian and French coasts where it has been introduced a long time ago (Figure 1).

 

Figure 1 – Geographical distribution of Chamaerops humilis (GARDINER and VÉLA, 2017).

 

In North Africa, it grows either on rocks in coastal areas, or more inland in sunny semi-arid areas, on limestone soils, above 1000m (MERLO et al., 1993; CAÑIZO, 2002).

Due to its rustic features and its ability to survive after fire, it has a high ecological value for preventing erosion and desertification, but also characterising certain stages of degradation of pre-forest vegetation in North Africa (MERLO et al., 1993; MEDJATI et al., 2019).

Belonging to the Arecaceae family, C. humilis is a perennial dioecious palm with a generally low trunk, often stemless, but sometimes reaching several meters if the plant is well protected. Leaves arranged in terminal clusters, palmate fan-shaped, with thorny or unarmed petiole. The flower is a short spadix (0.25-0.40 m) with 2 basal spathes. The male flowers are yellow while the female are green and hermaphrodites. Its fruits are yellow or reddish berries (BATTANDIER and TRABUT, 1895; QUÉZEL and SANTA, 1962-63). The plant propagates by seeds, which germinate after about 2 months, and also, with some difficulty, by division.

Taxonomically, we recorded the following accepted varieties: argentea André and humilis (http://www.theplantlist.org). The difference between these taxa relies on the color of the leaves. Indeed, we found that the var. humilis has green leaves whereas the var. argentea has silver leaves (HASNAOUI et al., 2011).

 

3.2. Ethnobotany

There are several ethnobotanical uses for the dwarf palm in the field of traditional medicine (Table 1), but also in other fields such as ornamentation and food. Also, several parts of the plant are used including young shoots, fruit, leaves, stem, whole plant, cabbage-palm, spadices, roots, heart of stipe, berries, flowers, rhizome, resin and seeds. In addition, different preparation methods are used such as raw, powder, decoction, maceration, salad, aqueous solution and infusion (Table 1).

 

Table 1 – Ethnobotanical uses of C. humilis

Medicinal uses	Other uses	Used part	Preparation	Country	References
Diarrhoear, dysentery, cholera, bacillary dysentery, shigellosis, astringent, styptic, toothache, gingivitis, odontalgia, caries, dental abscesses, affections of teeth or periodontics	–	Fruit	Powder	Morocco	Bellakhdar (1997)
Antidiabetic	–	Fruit	Powder	Morocco	Ghourri (2013); Idm’ hand et al. (2020)
–	Artisanal: basketry, broom elaboration. Domestic: for help at home. Ornamental: bouquet elaboration, gardening. Textile: fibre or cloth elaboration, textile padding.	Leaves, stem, the whole plant	–	Spain	Gras et al. (2013)
–	Food, handicraft	–	–	Spain	Benítez Cruz et al. (2010)
Anti-diarrheal	–	Fruit	Decoction	Morocco	Zouhri  and Aarab (2018)
Diabetes, blearing, gastric pains, constipation; toning	–	Leaves, cabbage-palm, spadices	–	Algeria	Hasnaoui et al. (2011)
Diabetes, hypertension, hepatitis, dyspepsia (gastrointestinal problems), anaemia, intestinal worms, cleaning the uterus after childbirth, rheumatism, cardio vascular diseases, gingivitis, influenza, coughing, asthma, attacks of the digestive tract (disinfectant).	–	Leave, roots, heart of stipe, fruit	Maceration, decoction, powder, salad	Algeria	Medjati et al. (2017)
Hypoglycaemic effect	–	Leaves	Aqueous solution	Morocco	Bellakhdar et al. (1991); Aliotta and Pollio. (1994)
Anti-inflammatory, anabolic, urinary, antiseptic, anti-lithic, diuretic	–	Berries	–	Morocco	Bellakhdar et al.(1991); Blumenthal et al.(2000); Beghalia et al.(2008); Hasnaoui et al. (2011)
Astringent	–	Fruit	–	–	Merlo et al. (1993)
Diabetes, carminative, gastritis, gastro-enteritis, gastralgia, stimulant, diarrhoea, wound of stomach and constipation	–	Leaves, heart of palm, spadice	–	Algeria	Hasnaoui et al. (2013)
Diabetes	–	Fruit	–	Morocco	Bnouham et al. (2002)
Diabetes	–	Roots	–	Algeria	Allali et al. (2008)
Digestive tract diseases	–	Leaves, flowers	Decoction, raw	Morocco	Slimani et al. (2016)
Anti-diabetic, against gastric and intestinal damage, associated with henna against hair loss	–	Roots	Decoction, powder	Morocco	Lahsissene et al. (2009)
Anti-diabetic and as a remedy for gastric and intestinal mucosal damage and against diarrhoea and gingivitis	–	Roots, fruits	–	Morocco	Bellakhdar(1997)
Against gastric ulcer	–	Rhizom	Decoction	Morocco	Bouayyadi et al. (2015)
Against stomach pain	–	Fruit	–	Morocco	El Azzouzi and Zidane (2015)
Against diarrhoea	–	Fruit	–	Morocco	El Hassani et al. (2013)
Ovin ailments	–	Leaves	–	Morocco	El-Hilaly et al. (2003)
Hypoglycaemic and fights lung ailments	–	Resine	Infusion	Morocco	Alaoui and Laaribya (2017)
–	Fish nets, fishing, ropes, shrouds	–	–	Italy	Savo et al. (2013)
Hepatic and dermatological	–	Fruit	–	Morocco	Ben Akka et al. (2017)
–	Broom, handle	–	–	Italy	Atzei (2003); Nedelcheva et al. (2007)
–	As source of carbohydrate for fermentation to product local beer	Seeds	–	India	Khonachand Singh et al. (2015)
Diabetes	–	Roots	–	Morocco	Benkhnigue et al. (2014)
–	Broms, strings to hang up caciottas, Rush seat chair	Leaves	–	Italy	Gargano et al. (2018)
–	Salad	shoots	–	Italy	Guarrera and Savo (2016)
Antidiarrheal	–	Fruit	Raw	Spain	Carrió and Vallès (2012)
–	Food	Young shoots	–	–	Reyes-García et al. (2015)
–	Facilitate breeding include the ones that are used by birds in captivity to build nests	–	–	Spain	Belda et al. (2012)
Digestive system disorders, Endocrine system disorders, Veterinary medicine	–	–		–	Gruca et al. (2015)

 

Most of medicinal uses are reported in North Africa (Algeria and Morocco). In this region, this plant is mainly known as traditional treatment of diabetes. Several authors in Algeria and Morroco (ALIOTTA and POLLIO, 1994; BELLAKHDAR, 1997; BNOUHAM et al., 2002; ALLALI et al., 2008; LAHSISSENE et al., 2009; HASNAOUI et al., 2011-2013; MEDJATI et al., 2013; GHOURRI et al., 2013; BENKHNIGUE et al., 2014; ALAOUI and LAARIBYA., 2017; IDM ‘HAND et al., 2020) have reported that C. humilis is effective against this disease.

The use of C. humilis against digestive and intestinal problems has also been reported in Algeria, Morocco and Spain (BELLAKHDAR, 1997; LAHSISSENE et al., 2009; HASNAOUI et al., 2011, 2013; CARRIÓ and VALLÈS, 2012; MEDJATI et al., 2013; EL HASSANI et al., 2013; EL AZZOUZI and ZIDANE, 2015; BOUAYYADI et al., 2015; SLIMANI et al., 2016; ZOUHRI and AARAB, 2018).

Bellakhdar (1997) and after him Medjati et al. (2019) reported its use against tooth ache and gingivitis, while Lahsissene et al. (2009) and Ben Akka et al. (2019) recorded the use of this plant to treat skin and hair problems. Other therapeutic treatments were also cited, including cholera, bacillary dysentery, shigellosis, hypertension, hepatitis, anaemia, childbirth, rheumatism, cardiovascular diseases, influenza and coughing, asthma, urinary and lung ailments. Furthermore, some properties have been highlighted, e.g., astringent, styptic, tonic, anti-inflammatory, anabolic, antiseptic, anti-lithic, diuretic, carminative and stimulant (BELLAKHDAR et al., 1991; MERLO et al., 1993; ALIOTTA and POLLIO, 1994; BLUMENTHAL et al., 2000; HASNAOUI et al., 2011; BEGHALIA et al., 2008; HASNAOUI et al., 2011, 2013; ALAOUI and LAARIBYA, 2017; MEDJATI et al., 2019; ZOUHRI and AARAB, 2018). Finally, El-Hilaly et al. (2003) reported some ethnoveterinary uses of the plant in Northern Morocco. Indeed, local population used the crushed leaves as a traditional remedy against some ovine ailments.

Regarding non-medical uses, C. humilis is employed for different purposes in the southern part of Europe. In Spain, this plant has several uses: artisanal (broom making), basketry, domestic, ornamental, textile (fiber or cloth elaboration and textile padding), food (salads) and build nests: used by birds in captivity (BENÍTEZ CRUZ et al., 2010; BELDA et al., 2012; CARRIÓ and VALLÈS., 2012; GRAS et al., 2016). In India, Khonachand-Singh et al. (2015) reported that this plant is used as a source of carbohydrate for fermentation to product a local beer. 

According to Atzei (2003), C. humilis is largely used in Italy in a few coastal parts, especially in handicrafts. Its use in the food and medicinal domains has been rarer. The young shoots were eaten in the past in Sardinia, especially during a famine: raw in salads, deep-fried, or even as a sweet. They were also eaten raw on spot as a snack by young males. It was also believed to couple well with wine for a specific taste. The shoots were collected by burning the external spring shoot and just taking the most internal part. In western Sardinia, the acidic fruits, especially gathered by poor people, were sometimes consumed raw. The same fruits were considered two Centuries ago a folk medicine in Alghero; they were used as astringent, while the powdered seeds were utilized as haemostatic. Even the wine macerate of the seeds was drunk as a tonic and digestive. In the field of magic medicine, the heated aerial parts were sometimes rubbed on the genital parts of kids; this was believed to cure nocturnal enuresis. In the coast of Tuscany, these aerial parts were used in a special treatment against the Evil-Eye. Other uses are also reported in Italy: to make fish nets, fishing, ropes, shrouds, broom, handle, rush seat chair and salad (NEDELCHEVA et al., 2007; SAVO et al., 2013; GUARRERA and SAVO, 2016; GARGANO et al., 2018).

 

3.3. Phytochemical constituents

The phytochemical composition of C. humilis (extracts and essential oils) was explored by divers researchers (HIRAI et al., 1986; MONACHE et al., 1972; HARBONE et al., 1973; WILLIAMS et al., 1974; HIRAI et al., 1986; ZIOUTI et al., 1996; CAISSARD et al., 2004; BENNACEUR et al., 2010; SILES et al., 2013; GIOVINO et al., 2014; NEHDI et al., 2014; KHOUDALI et al., 2016; MOKBLI et al., 2018; AICHA et al., 2018). These investigations showed that C. humilis possesses a wide range of phytochemical constituents (Table 2), including secondary metabolites like: anthracenosides, anthraquinones, cardiac glycosides, saponins, saponosides, volatile oils, tannins, steroids, unsaturated sterols, free and glycosidic flavonoids and primary metabolites like fixed oils, reducing sugars and vitamin E (Table 2).

 

Table 2 – The bioactive compounds isolated and identified from C. humilis

N	Taxa/ Country	Part of plant	Extracts / Essential oils	Methods	Chemical class	Chemical name of main compound	References
1	C. humilis India	Leaves/ Fruits	Methanol	Maceration	Steroid saponin	Diosgenin	Panizo and Pinar (1962)
2	C. humilis Italy	Fruits	Methanol	Maceration	Flavonol monomers	(+)-Epicatechin	Monache et al. (1971)
3	C. humilis USA	Leaves	Methanol	Maceration	Flavonoid	Leucoanthocyanidin	Harbone et al. (1973), Williams et al. (1974)
4	C. humilis USA and Morocco	Leaves	Methanol/ Aqueous	Maceration/ HPLC	Flavon	Tricin 5-O-glycoside	Harboneet al. (1973), Williams et al. (1974), Ziouti et al. (1996)
5	C. humilis USA	Flowers	Methanol	Maceration	Flavonoid	Rutin	Harbone et al. (1973), Williams et al. (1974)
6	C. humilis USA	Flowers	Methanol	Maceration	Flavonoid	Isorhamnetin 3-O-glycoside	Harbone et al. (1973), Williams et al. (1974)
7	C. humilis USA	Flowers	Methanol	Maceration	Flavonoid	Isorhamnetin 3-O-rutinoside	Harbone et al. (1973), Williams et al. (1974)
8	C. humilis USA	Flowers	Methanol	Maceration	Fatty acids	Caffeoylshikimic acid	Harbone et al. (1973), Williams et al. (1974)
9	C. humilis Japan	Leaves	Butanol	Maceration	Flavonoid	Tricin 7-O-rutinoside	Hirai et al. (1986),
10	C. humilis France (Montpellier)	Leaves essential oil	Washing in dichloromethane	HS-GC	Sesquiterpenes	Alpha-Farnesene	Caissard et al. (2004)
11	C. humilis France (Montpellier)	Leaves essential oil	Washing in dichloromethane	HS-GC	Monoterpenes	(E) Beta-Ocimene	Caissard et al. (2004)
12	C. humilis France (Montpellier)	Leaves essential oil	Washing in dichloromethane	HS-GC	Monoterpenes	Linalool	Caissard et al. (2004)
13	C. humilis Morocco, Algeria, (Adrar)	Leaves	Aqueous	HPLC/ Maceration	Flavonols	Quercetin	Ziouti et al. (1996), Bennaceur et al. (2010)
14	C. humilis Morocco Algeria, (Adrar)	Leaves	Aqueous	HPLC/ Maceration	Flavonols	Isorhamnetin	Ziouti et al. (1996), Bennaceur et al. (2010)
15	C. humilis European populations	Seeds oil	n-hexane	Soxhlet and esterification GC-MS	Fatty acids	Stearic acid	Giovino et al. (2014)
16	C. humilis European populations C. humilis var. humilis Tunisia (Tunis)	Seeds oil	n-hexane	Soxhlet and esterification GC-MS	Fatty acids	Oleic acid	Giovino et al. (2014), Mokbli et al. (2018)
17	C. humilis European populations C. humilis var. humilis Tunisia (Tunis)	Seeds oil	n-hexane	Soxhlet and esterification GC-MS	Fatty acids	Linoleic acid	Giovino et al. (2014), Mokbli et al. (2018)
18	C. humilis European populations C. humilis var. humilis Tunisia (Tunis)	Seeds oil	n-hexane	Soxhlet and esterification GC-MS	Fatty acids	Lauric acid	Giovino et al. (2014), Mokbli et al. (2018)
19	C. humilis European populations	Seeds oil/ Leaves	n-hexane	Soxhlet and esterification GC-MS	Fatty acids	Palmitic acid	Giovino et al. (2014), Khoudali et al. (2016)
20	C. humilisvar. argentea Tunisia (Tunis)	Seeds oil	n-hexane	Soxhlet GC-FID	Vitamin E	δ-tocotrienols	Nehdi et al. (2014)
21	C. humilis var. argentea Tunisia (Tunis) C. humilis var. humilis Spain (Cordoba) C. humilisvar.Volcano Spain	Seeds oil Quiescent seeds	n-hexane Methanol	HPLC Soxhlet GC-FID HPLC	Vitamin E	α-tocotrienols	Siles et al. (2013), Nehdi et al. (2014), Siles et al. (2015)
22	C. humilis var. argentea Tunisia (Tunis) C. humilis var. humilis Tunisia (Tunis)	Seeds oil	n-hexane	Soxhlet GC-FID GC-MS	Vitamin E	γ- tocotrienols	Nehdi et al. (2014), Mokbli et al. (2018)
23	C. humilis var. argentea Tunisia (Tunis) C. humilis var. humilis Tunisia (Tunis) C. humilis var. volcano Spain	Seeds oil Quiescent seeds	Methanol n-hexane	HPLC Soxhlet GC-FID GC-MS	Vitamin E	γ-tocopherol	Siles et al. (2013), Nehdi et al. (2014), Mokbli et al. (2018)
24	C. humilis Morocco (Casablanca)	Leaves essential oil	Water	Hydrodistillation GC-MS	Tricyclic sesquiterpene	Spathulenol	Khoudali et al. (2016)
25	C. humilis Morocco (Casablanca)	Leaves essential oil	Water	Hydrodistillation GC-MS	Sesquiterpenoid	-Eudesmol	Khoudali et al. (2016)
26	C. humilis Morocco (Casablanca)	Leaves essential oil	Water	Hydrodistillation GC-MS	Bicyclic sesquiterpene	Caryophyllene oxide	Khoudali et al. (2016)
27	C. humilis Morocco (Casablanca)	Leaves essential oil	Water	Hydrodistillation GC-MS	Aldehyde	Octadecanal	Khoudali et al. (2016)
28	C. humilis Morocco (Casablanca)	Leaves essential oil	Water	Hydrodistillation GC-MS	Acyclic diterpene	Phytol	Khoudali et al. (2016)
29	C. humilis Japan	Leaves/ Roots	Butanol	Maceration	Steroid glycoside	Methyl proto-Pb	Hirai et al. (1986)
30	C. humilis Japan	Stems/ Roots	Butanol	Maceration	Steroid saponin	Methyl protodioscin	Hirai et al. (1986)
31	C. humilis Japan	Stems	Butanol	Maceration	Steroid saponin	Pseudo-protodioscin	Hirai et al. (1986)
32	C. humilis Japan	Roots	Butanol	Maceration	Steroids aponin	Methyl proto-rhapissaponin	Hirai et al. (1986)

 

Hasnaoui et al. (2011) showed the presence of saponosides, tannins, steroids, unsaturated sterols, free flavonoids and glycosidic flavonoids in flowers and leaves of C. humilis var. argentea. Benmehdi et al. (2012), studied the composition of different leaves and fruits extracts of C. humilis. They reported the presence of gallotannins in diethyl ether, methanol and water extracts of leaves and fruits, steroids in diethyl ether and methanol extracts of fruits, saponins in diethyl ether, methanol and water extracts of leaves, flavonoids in methanol extracts of leaves and fruits, steroids in diethyl and methanol extracts of fruits, fatty acids in diethyl ether extracts of leaves and fruits, anthraquinones and cardiac glycosides in water extract of fruits, anthracenosides in methanol extract of leaves and reducing sugars in methanol and water extracts of leaves and fruits (Figure 2).

 

Figure 2 – Phytochemical analysis of extracts from leaves and fruits of Chamaerops humilis L. (BENMEHDI et al., 2012).

 

3.3.1. Flavonoids

C. humilis was found to contain certain flavonoids (Figure 3). (+)-Epicatechin was isolated and identified by Monache et al. (1972) in the methanolic fruit extract. The group of Harbone et al. in 1973 and Williams in 1974, reported the isolation of leucoanthocyanidin, flavone C-glycoside, tricin-5-O-glycoside from the leaves, and rutin, isorhamnetin 3-O-glycoside, isorhamnetin 3-O-rutinoside, in the flower methanolic extract. Hirai and his team in 1986 isolated tricin 7-O-rutinoside from the methanol fraction of leaves. Ziouti et al. (1996) and Bennaceur et al. (2010) reported that leaves of this plant contain some flavonols, namely quercetin and isorhamnetin, and flavones, such as luteolin, tricine and chrysoeriol.

 

Figure 3 – Chemical structures of flavonoids identified in Chamaerops humilis.

 

3.3.2. Volatile compounds and triterpenoids

The compounds of this plant were investigated for the first time by Hirai et al. (1986), who reported the isolation of diosgenin from fruits. Different kinds of steroids were identified and characterized in C. humilis (Figure 4). The work of Hirai and his team in (1986) investigated phytochemically the different parts of the plant (roots, stems and leaves). The results revealed the presence of steroids from the leaves and roots of C. humilis butanolic extract, and steroid saponins (methyl protodioscin, pseudo-protodioscin and methyl proto-rhapissaponin) from stems and roots of C. humilis butanolic extract.  Later, Caissard and colleagues (2004) used headspace to identify sesquiterpenes (-farnesene) and monoterpenes (E)--ocimene and linalool) in different parts (sinus, veins and blade) of the leaves. Using hydro-distillation from leaves of C. humilis, many terpenoids including spathulenol, -eudesmol, caryophyllene oxide, phytol, -santalol, ledol, juniper camphor, -farnesene, isophytol, -cadinol, (E)-β-ocimene and (E)-nerolidol, were identified (KHOUDALI et al., 2016) (Figure 5).

 

Figure 4 – Chemical structures of steroids isolated from Chamaerops humilis.

 

3.3.3. Fatty acids and vitamins

Different fatty acids were identified from C. humilis seeds oils (Figure 6). The team of Giovino in 2014, extracted seeds oil from 10 European C. humilis accessions and identified hexanoic, caprylic, capric, undecanoic, heptadecanoic, stearic, oleic, linoleic, lauric, palmitic and myristic acids. While Nehdi et al. (2014), Siles et al. (2013, 2015) and Mokbli et al. (2018), extracted seeds oil from C. humilis var. argentea and identified the vitamin E under the form of δ-tocotrienols (32%), α-tocotrienols (29%), γ-tocopherol (21%) and γ-tocotrienols (12%). However, quiescent seeds have been the main focus for the search of bioactive compounds by Siles and his team in 2013, on C. humilis var. volcano (invalid name) and C. humilis var. argentea. They found that the two varieties accumulate vitamin E under the form of tocotrienols (mainly in the form of α-tocotrienol) rather than tocopherols (Figure 7). In continuation of research for compounds from the quiescent seeds, the same group in 2015, worked on C. humilis var. humilis, and found some common constituents as in the previous work, like tocotrienols (mainly in the form of α-tocotrienol ˃ 80%) and tocopherols (traces).

 

Figure 5 – Chemical structures of volatiles compounds identified in Chamaerops humilis.

 

3.4. Pharmacological activities

Pharmacological activities of C. humilis are poorly studied. Few researches have been made focusing on the antimicrobial, enzyme inhibition, antidiabetic, antilithic, antioxidant and anticancer activity.

 

Figure 6 – Chemical structures of fatty acids identified in Chamaerops humilis.

 

3.4.1. Antibacterial activity

The antimicrobial activity of C. humilis is depending on microorganisms and active compounds (Figure 8).        Dichloromethane, ethyl acetate, n-butanol and water extracts of C. humilis leaves and fruit were effective in inhibiting Acinetobacter baumannii, Aeromonas veronii, Enterococcus faecalis, Klebsiella pneumonia, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus (BELHAOUES et al., 2017). The extracted leaves and fruit essential oils of C. humilis showed inhibition on the growth of P. aeruginosa, Listeria monocytogenes, Escherichia coli, S. aureus and Bacillus subtilis (HASNAOUI et al., 2013).

 

Figure 7 – Chemical structures of vitamins identified in Chamaerops humilis.

 

3.4.2. Antifungal activity

The essential oil of C. humilis leaves and fruit was evaluated in vitro against 6 fungi (Aspergillus flavus, A. niger, A. ochraceus, Rhizopus stolonifer, Penicillium viridicum and Alternaria spp.) isolated from grain storage silos and 3 strains of yeast (Candida albicans) to determine the antifungal activity. The essential oil inhibited the growth of all fungi in the concentration range of 3.9 to 100%. The oil revealed complete inhibition of A. niger at 2.5 μl/mL, and A. ochraceus and R. stolonifer at 12.5 μl/mL. As well, C. humilis essential oil showed inhibitory response against the three yeast species (HASNAOUI et al., 2014).

 

Figure 8 – Assumptions about mechanism for Chamaerops humilis action in the microorganism cell.

 

3.4.3. Enzyme inhibiting activity

The methanolic extracts of C. humilis obtained from various parts (leaves, fruit, seeds, peel and pulp) show an inhibitory effect on enzymes linked with neurodegenerative diseases such as acetylcholinesterase (AChE), butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) and tyrosinase (TYR) (Figure 9).  Gonçalves et al. (2018) indicated that seed and peel extracts inhibited AChE at 660.16 and 653.68 µg/ mL, respectively, and BChE at 304.86 and 701.54 µg/ mL, respectively. Whereas the strongest inhibition of TYR was achieved by the seed and pulp extracts at 268.97 and 279.99 µg/ mL, respectively. More recently, Bouhafsoun et al. (2019) carried out an experiment to investigate the anticholinesterase effect of water and methanol extracts of leaves and fruits of C. humilis against both AChE and BChE. The results revealed that methanol and water fruit extracts inhibited BChE at 31.65 and 30.19 %, respectively.

 

Figure 9 – Enzyme inhibiting activities of Chmaerops humilis extracts.

 

3.4.4. Antidiabetic activity

Through the experiments on Meriones shawi rats, Gaamoussi et al. (2010) tested the leaf aqueous extract of C. humilis as an antidiabetic and hypolipidemic. The same authors found that during aqueous leaves extract treatment for 30 days, there was a significant decrease effect on glucose (12.04 to 4.84 mmol/L), cholesterol (3.46 to 0.62 mmol/L) and triglycerides (1.15 to 0.37 mmol/L) levels.

 

3.4.5. Anti-lithic activity

Aqueous sheath extract of C. humilis was found to have inhibitory action on the growth of calcium oxalate crystal (BEGHALIA et al., 2008).

 

3.4.6. Antioxidant activity

In the study performed by Bouhafsoun et al. (2013), the leaf and root methanolic extracts of C. humilis showed a remarkable effect on DPPH scavenging free radical (180.71 μg/mL). In another study carried out by Bouhafsoun et al. (2019), methanol and water extracts of C. humilis leaves and fruits were found to have different levels of antioxidant activity. The highest ABTS scavenging activity was demonstrated by methanol leaf extracts (50.11% in ABTS). The activity was higher than in methanol fruit extracts, whereas the other remaining water extracts had low activity (20.35%). Furthermore, the results indicated that the cupric ions (Cu²⁺) reducing capacity of the water extract of C. humilis fruit was higher than that of the methanol extract (0.53 and 0.24 μg/mL, respectively). In the investigation of Gonçalves et al. (2018), the antioxidant activity of the methanolic extracts from seeds of C. humilis showed a great ability to scavenge DPPH (81.28 μg/ mL) and ABTS (1440.42 μmol/TEg extract) and to reduce iron (1142.46 μmol/AAE g extract). The antioxidant activity of the ethanolic and hexane extracts of flowers and seeds of C. humilis was tested using the DPPH method. The ethanolic extract of grains revealed a percentage of inhibition of 84.05% to the effective concentration IC₅₀ 2.38 μg/ mL, whereas the antioxidant activity of the other three extracts remains significantly lower than that of the ethanolic extract of grains (FEKKAR et al., 2016). The dichloromethane, ethyl acetate, n-butanol and water extracts showed IC₅₀ values from 0.12 to 3.7 mg/mL for leaves and from 0.76 to 4.95 mg/mL for fruits. The ethyl acetate extracts showed the maximum capacity in both leaves and fruits, i.e. 0.12 and 0.76 mg/mL, respectively (BELHAOUES et al., 2017).

 

3.4.7. Anticancer activity

The efficacy of this plant against cancer is very poorly studied. The anticancer activity of crude polysaccharide of C. humilis fruits was recently investigated by Dawood et al. (2020). The polysaccharide identified was tested in two tumor cell lines which included HepG2 and MCF-7. Results indicate that C. humilis polysaccharide can reduce the viability of MCF-7 and HepG2 when tested at concentrations ranged between 6.25 and 100 μg/ml. Phenotypic changes, including cell morphology and cell-cell adhesion were also observed, in culture, after the treatment with C. humilis polysaccharides.

 

4. Discussion

 

In general, the richness of C. humilis in phytochemical constituents could explain several ethnobotanical properties and uses of this plant.

According to Bellakhdar et al. (1991), C. humilis is known for its anti-inflammatory effects. This seems to be the consequence of the presence of rutin which has been proposed as an anti-inflammatory compound by Guardia et al. (2001) and Ahmad et al. (2014). Uses against cardiovascular illnesses and diabetes (BELLAKHDAR et al., 1991; ALIOTTA and POLLIO, 1994; BNOUHAM et al., 2002; ALLALI et al., 2008; HASNAOUI et al., 2011; MEDJATI et al., 2013; MEDJATI et al., 2019) are also justified by the presence of rutin which, according to some authors such as Guardia et al. (2001), Kamalakkannan et al. (2006) or Maugein (2015), has anti-hyperglycemic, hypo-cholesterol, antidiabetic, anti-platelet aggregating, anti-cholinesterase, antioxidant and neuro-protective effects.

Other components can also explain the traditional uses of saw palmetto such as diosgenin which has a wide range of health benefits. Indeed, several studies (MOALIC et al., 2001; CHIANG et al., 2007) have proven the inhibitory action of diosgenin on cell proliferation of several types of tumors (breast carcinoma, colon carcinoma, hepatoma, leukemia and osteosarcoma). In addition, diosgenin has an inhibitory activity on human breast cancer (HE et al., 2014).

According to Abduelkhaleq et al. (2017), the consumption of C. humilis epicatechin-rich can decrease the levels of glucose in diabetic patients blood, whereas the effect against cancer would be in relation with its cytotoxicity, antiangiogenic and antioxidant properties.

Hu et al. (2015) indicated that isorhamnetine contained in the dwarf palm inhibits cell proliferation of breast cancer and induces cellular apoptosis. Isorhamnetin, also named 3′-O-methylquercetin wich is an immediate quercetin metabolite, possesses an inhibitory effect on several types of cancer, including the esophagus (SHI et al., 2012), gastric cancer (RAMACHANDRAN et al., 2012), leukemia (BOUBAKER et al., 2011, 2012), skin (KIM et al., 2011), colon (JARAMILLO et al., 2010) and lung cancer (LEE et al., 2008). Modafar et al. (2000) have shown that the main phenolic compound contained in the roots of C. humilis (caffeoylshikimic acid), could constitute for the host of Fusarium oxysporum f.sp albedinis a resistance factor.

Tocotrienol has been shown to have a hypo-cholesterolemic effect with capacity to decrease the lipoprotein (a) plasma levels and also atherogenic apolipoprotein B. As well, it appears that tocotrienol have an antitumor and anti-thrombotic effect. This shows that this compound could be effective to prevent and/or treat cancer and cardiovascular disease (THERIAULT et al., 1999). The study of Serbinova et al. (1991) indicated that tocotrienol could be better than tocopherol as antioxidant because it has been found to inhibit the activity of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutarylcoenzyme A reductase and thus, reduce synthesis cholesterol (PARKER et al., 1993). Other investigations (QURESHI et al., 1991; GOH et al., 1994) demonstrated the antithrombotic and antitumor effects of tocotrienol. Besides, it is possible to use tocotrienol as a dietary supplement to decrease tumor angiogenesis (INOKUCHI et al., 2003).

In addition, the work of Mikailu and Abo (2017) have shown a hypolipidemic effects of C. humilis leaves extract.

C. humilis is traditionally used against lungs infection diseases (ALAOUI and LAARIBYA, 2017). Hafaied et al. (2015) reported action of C. humilis extract against some bacteria responsible for lung infections as Klebsiella pneumonia, Acinetobacter baumannii and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (HAFAIED et al., 2015).

Aeromonas veronii, Staphylococcus aureus and Salmonella enterica are responsible for several gastric pathologies including ulcers and gastroenteritis (LE LOIR et al., 2003; SHUANG-HU et al., 2012; AUBRY, 2024). The inhibitory activity of C. humilis extract against A. veronii could thus justify its use against gastric problems, in particular gastroenteritis (LAHSISSENE et al., 2009; HASNAOUI et al., 2011, 2013; BOUAYYADI et al., 2015). The use of C. humilis against diarrhea and gastroenteritis may also be related to the inhibitory activity of certain pathogenic germs such as E. coli which are sometimes responsible for these ailments (AUBRY, 2024). However, we did not find any study on the efficacy of the plant extracts against Helicobacter pylori. So, it will be interesting to investigate this subject regarding its traditional use against the digestive system diseases.

Enterococcus faecalis is known as an agent for several human infections including urinary tract infections and prostatitis. This is also the case for P. aeruginosa (FERREIRO et al., 2017). The action of C. humilis against these bacteria could justify its use as a diuretic and against urinary infections (BELLAKHDAR Et al., 1991; BLUMENTHAL et al., 2000; BEGHALIA et al., 2008; HASNAOUI et al., 2011).

The efficacy of C. humilis extract against Listeria monocytogenes could explain the observed use of this plant against certain animal diseases and infections, especially in sheep (EL-HILALY et al., 2003). Indeed, this bacterium is responsible of some potentially serious infections in animals, including Listeriosis in sheep (VIDEAU, 1987).

The antifungal activity observed against several strains (HASNAOUI et al., 2014), may also explain some ethnobotanical uses of C. humilis leaves and fruits to treat dermatological and hair loss problems (LAHSISSENE et al., 2009; BEN AKKA et al., 2019). Indeed, the study of Hasnaoui et al. (2014) reported that Aspergillus niger which showed a complete sensitivity to the essential oil of C. humilis is a possible agent of tinea capitis causing the loss of hair. This sensitivity may also justify the use of C. humilis against certain pulmonary infections caused by A. niger.

The use of C. humilis against diabetes and kidney stones have been explained by several experimental works. Indeed, the antidiabetic activity was demonstrated on rats by Gaamoussi et al. (2010), while the anti-lithic one was observed by Beghalia et al. (2008). However, the antioxidant and inhibitory activity of certain enzymes in extracts of C. humilis is not visible in ethnobotanical uses as long as this plant is used neither against strokes and neurodegenerative diseases, nor against cancers or other related diseases. The richness in chemical components having an antitumor activity could attribute to C. humilis very effective action against some types of cancer. This has strangely not been reported by ethnobotanical surveys so far carried out.

Finally, several ethnobotanical uses of the plant have noticeably not been explored on the pharmacological level, in particular the uses against shigellosis, hepatitis, anaemia, intestinal worms, cleaning the uterus after childbirth, rheumatism, influenza and coughing.

 

5. Conclusions

 

This review highlights the botany, distribution, ethnobotany, phytochemistry and pharmacology of the Mediterranean dwarf palm (C. humilis). This plant, found across the western and central Mediterranean region is historically known by the people of this area through different uses especially in traditional medicine. The medicinal uses are mainly known and practiced in North Africa through the different parts and preparations used against several diseases such as diabetes and gastrointestinal diseases, while non-medicinal uses are mainly known in Mediterranean Europe.

The chemical composition of C. humilis include several groups of phytocompounds such as steroids, flavonoids, terpenoids, fatty acids and vitamins, which are responsible for several biological effects such as antimicrobial, enzyme inhibition, antidiabetic, anti-lithic and antioxidant.

Several traditional uses of this palm especially against pulmonary, urinary infections, diabetes, gastric problems, kidneys, skin and hair loss as well as its ethno-veterinary use can be justified by the inhibitory effect of its extract against several bacterial and fungal species.

No study on the anti-inflammatory effects of C. humilis have been recorded, while studies on anti-cancer activity are extremely rare, and despite that, this plant is traditionally used for its anti-inflammatory properties. This opens up the opportunity to explore the mode of action, the active principles, and the molecules responsible for these properties and activities, which are at the core of the use of this plant.

Finally, due to the low number of recorded published studies on these species, further studies should be conducted with attention to the ethnobotanical, phytochemical and pharmacological levels. On the other hand, its conservation in the wild should also be investigated and bring to the forefront. Although the plant is assessed as “Least Concern” by the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, natural populations of this plant are declining across its distribution area as a result of urbanization (GARDINER and VÉLA, 2017).

 

Conflicts of interest

 

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

 

Authors’ contribution

 

Rima Haichour – data curation, writing – original draft; Fatima Senouci – conceptualization, writing – original draft; Ahmed Boukeloua – methodology, data curation; Nabila Souilah – software, validation, correction and text review; Soumicha Mahdjour – conceptualization, methodology; Karim Baziz – visualization, writing – review & editing; Petulia Blake – review & editing; Hamdi Bendif – supervision, visualization, writing – review & editing; Mohamed Djamel Miara – original idea, supervision, writing – review & editing.

 

Funding

 

This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

 

Acknowledgments

 

The authors would like to thank Prof. Andrea Pieroni (University of Gastronomic Sciences of Pollenzo, Piazza, Italy), for his comments and advice.

 

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Received on February 23, 2024

Returned for adjustments on May 24, 2024

Received with adjustments on May 25, 2024

Accepted on May 31, 2024

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